1 What Does It Mean “Metal Cutting”? ...........................................................1 $ y& l; s1 S- W5 U+ X
1.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................1 / v6 J! ~: k7 a0 W% v
1.2 Known Results and Comparison with Other Forming Processes ..............2
8 `3 _8 _. y- U- w$ E& } 1.2.1 Single-shear Plane Model of Metal Cutting ...................................2
9 x/ P! Z! [! z! S- i 1.2.2 Metal Cutting vs. Other Closely Related Manufacturing
. a6 p2 M& O$ ^" O9 M8 d$ m Operations .................................................................................................5 2 M) t) W- S! Z% N, v/ j9 b. a6 @
1.3 What Went Wrong in the Representation of Metal Cutting?...................22
0 T! L0 t9 _0 X) P& { 1.3.1 Force Diagram..............................................................................23
( e' n" P/ e2 e" S0 l, I1 c7 e 1.3.2 Resistance of the Work Material in Cutting.................................25
6 m1 }# J u' J6 x1 l; ]8 h: H/ b# i 1.3.3 Comparison of the Known Solutions for the Single-shear
& k" Y: s( U4 M6 b4 o) D Plane Model with Experimental Results .................................................27
; F5 B X& J9 Y, G# C; }+ }1 c# L- B1.4 What is Metal Cutting?............................................................................28 7 H: B8 f8 p/ m: z" n
1.4.1 Importance to Know the Right Answer........................................28 . Z, E0 c: _! y) n$ j
1.4.2 Definition .....................................................................................28
2 ~' `" |% v3 q- p# n4 d0 G; h W 1.4.3 Relevance to the Cutting Tool Geometry.....................................29
7 M) _8 p3 b& m6 n% n6 C3 |% s1.5 Fundamental Laws of Metal Cutting.......................................................32
+ u1 w9 [- L) Q, O" @+ {2 | 1.5.1 Optimal Cutting Temperature – Makarow’s Law........................32 & \) p1 \% ]4 k4 F; C; Y9 l% j3 p# @
1.5.2 Deformation Law.........................................................................35 6 G( t1 ^: `" d! i# }
References........................................................................................................50 6 Q( X. A" r6 p. R
2 Basic Definitions and Cutting Tool Geometry,
) L, `+ ~8 Q4 zSingle Point Cutting Tools ............................................................................55 ; p, n1 \4 _$ x; U1 r9 a7 R
2.1 Basic Terms and Definitions ...................................................................55
7 u, u' Y8 E5 X 2.1.1 Workpiece Surfaces.......................................................................57 . S+ K5 x$ B" `( w1 v! j8 I
2.1.2 Tool Surfaces and Elements ..........................................................57
; j' W* j* R3 T) N6 S C3 b 2.1.3 Tool and Workpiece Motions.......................................................57 ) D3 A1 \: J; }8 W3 j/ a! e
2.1.4 Types of Cutting ............................................................................58
{2 ~7 U g: S) C6 d7 j1 d2.2 Cutting Tool Geometry Standards...........................................................60
( G, W* J1 z2 }; P2.3 Systems of Consideration of Tool Geometry ..........................................61
- v# B8 M% y7 s) f. ]. c% t, |0 T, B2.4. Tool-in-hand System (T-hand-S) .......................................................64
$ [0 f. n0 X7 P, k; x1 F$ E# _: ~ 2.4.1 Tool-in-hand Coordinate System.................................................64 5 i0 ?3 C+ `* e: c6 g ~5 s
2.4.2 References Planes ........................................................................66 * X6 G0 q5 z" S+ k. i- V: y* m
2.4.3 Tool Angles..................................................................................68
" ^ R P2 r0 Z 2.4.4 Geometry of Cutting Tools with Indexable Inserts ......................74
G* Q( H8 m# x0 r$ \2.5 Tool-in-machine System (T-mach-S)......................................................84
3 {% r% t2 \* o# y 2.5.1 Angles ..........................................................................................84
: q8 v# F: v& w$ G: ~ }7 j 2.5.2 Example 2.3 .................................................................................88 ) P1 |; Q* v% V8 h; p* m- w
2.6 Tool-in-use System (T-use-S) .................................................................90 3 ?% D) C8 z4 L
2.6.1 Reference Planes ..........................................................................91
$ n `+ t' `3 ~7 N- K* z 2.6.2 The Concept .................................................................................92 / D8 e7 m( {# K) A" S& B. k- b
2.6.3 Modification of the T-hand-S Cool Geometry .............................92 : v7 l4 E5 N7 ]6 D, I
2.6.4 Kinematic Angles.........................................................................98
& B3 u P0 b2 k8 P2 }7 i 2.6.5 Example 2.4 ...............................................................................100
8 l' } ?5 `' P) G2.7 Avalanched Representation of the Cutting Tool Geometry
# I' X+ f4 A8 S- {( P in T-hand-S............................................................................................102 / g4 V5 l0 v8 d
2.7.1 Basic Tool Geometry .................................................................102
' Y( Z- L. D% L# b2 \! g+ G& o- Z" b8 Z2.7.2 Determination of Cutting Tool Angles Relation
& `0 Z0 ?2 C N7 j% A' {% {* Q for a Wiper Cutting Insert ..........................................................108 2 z0 D& {8 b Q( U
2.7.3 Determination of Cutting Tool Angles 1 B# h5 j0 j! X: [; i, T
for a Single-point Tool ...............................................................110 / o. t. a! e* z0 ^9 B
2.7.4 Flank Angles of a Dovetail Forming Tool .................................117 0 p6 m7 j, j) n7 U7 ]1 }
2.7.5 Summation of Several Motions..................................................119
( Z C4 j0 K; H Z. H/ R* ^References......................................................................................................125 4 N1 u6 x8 P# s1 J* f) y
3 Fundamentals of the Selection of Cutting Tool Geometry Parameters...127 4 d! f, F/ s+ t- G% ]4 k
3.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................127
7 T6 p; u4 N1 ^$ d# Q" K, S3.2 General Considerations in the Selection of Parameters . }. k9 W. I5 u2 g: q% ?4 i3 m# O. H
of Cutting Tool Geometry .....................................................................129
: f* E; q7 H2 b9 H: i 3.2.1 Known Results .............................................................................129 5 U: P) ~- L0 ?$ ^0 S" e2 x
3.2.2 Ideal Tool Geometry and Constrains............................................130
: Z c2 {3 M+ ^$ C 3.2.3 Practical Gage for Experimental Evaluation of Tool Geometry...132
6 p% c/ s; _) L! f% S, x" \# L3.3 Tool Cutting Edge Angles .....................................................................132
0 ~$ ^, v4 ?6 x" H% z 3.3.1 General Consideration................................................................132
# h# ?( K# o, o. [! y7 W5 N% F 3.3.2 Uncut ChipT in Non-free Cutting ..............................................134 k6 Z# i% w2 u/ n, p
3.3.3 Influence on the Surface Finish..................................................142
2 P. I4 j( d8 ]; c 3.3.4 Tools with κr > 90°.....................................................................144 ) {1 i& z" r: `0 Q( N. j
3.3.5 Tool Minor Cutting Edge Angle ................................................147 0 h* l. h3 q" i2 h v
3.4. Edge Preparation ...................................................................................161
" \8 h) K' }5 F* J4 Y6 z9 Z 3.4.1 General .......................................................................................161 ; B: U6 P! Z! @# J8 I+ P' e; v; V
3.4.2 Shape and Extent........................................................................163 3 W z7 Y0 x6 k5 j: ]/ F/ A
3.4.3 Limitations .................................................................................163 : p% `, }) K9 v+ h3 _, f0 I
3.4.4 What Edge Preparation Actually Does.......................................169
, |! X+ F% M+ E5 R: a8 @" V3.5 Rake Angle............................................................................................171
8 b# T# v2 F% N- }3 F2 I 3.5.1 Introduction................................................................................171
3 Y' \6 e/ l3 ` 3.5.2 Influence on Plastic Deformation and Generazliations ..............175
D/ k/ h: h" a" w8 K5 ] 3.5.3 Effective Rake Angle .................................................................183 # e! t, f6 f# M8 u/ D* O5 Y; S
3.5.4 Conditions for Using High Rake Angles....................................189
3 h9 E& K6 G# H3.6 Flank Angle ...........................................................................................191
- U! v" h8 ]6 {% R1 S o3.7 Inclination Angle...................................................................................193
$ ~" ^0 ~+ c) U G0 K6 k6 K3 Q 3.7.1 Turning with Rotary Tools.........................................................195 1 b& B9 N% `9 W4 `" }
3.7.2 Helical Treading Taps and Broaches..........................................197 9 }( {9 s$ E. h' u$ \4 c, \5 h
3.7.3 Milling Tools..............................................................................198 1 _: Y4 [! [& e3 n
References......................................................................................................201 ) x4 _, T! S7 G, V
4 Straight Flute and Twist Drills ...................................................................205
# K2 R9 @$ _( p% V# e7 l4.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................205 $ k1 m! h u! R4 B7 T
4.2 Classification.........................................................................................206
3 C/ U3 z7 o1 Z1 u( ~* Z6 `4.3 Basic Terms...........................................................................................208
, U# E) k* ?$ m# u* c4.4 System Approach ..................................................................................211 & H2 p# `( g, [; F# x- h0 `2 X( u9 G, d
4.4.1 System Objective .......................................................................212
+ p* K. ?" a { 4.4.2 Understanding the Drilling System............................................212
- Y' F, Z# w$ Q# P. K% m8 S 4.4.3. Understanding the Tool..............................................................212
* H& F, z! M5 h H2 @% N7 |5 V& r4.5. Force System Constrains on the Drill Penetration Rate ........................213 $ L& v- c& y& F8 ]) d3 W7 i2 b
4.5.1 Force-balance Problem in Conventional Drills ..........................213
5 f; X. u/ X+ a8 J. U 4.5.2 Constrains on the Drill Penetration Rate....................................218
) N6 v; I; L/ e0 b6 ^+ d 4.5.3 Drilling Torque ..........................................................................219
0 ^9 ]8 f* J; m* V 4.5.4 Axial Force.................................................................................220 - o$ s) y& }$ S/ R* m. d0 C
4.5.5 Axial Force (Thrust)-torque Coupling .......................................221 7 C; T8 S6 }' L& I) V$ R0 \/ g
4.6 Drill Point ..............................................................................................223
* e5 j. j7 m: R4 q* A 4.6.1 Basic Classifications ..................................................................223 [4 R# @4 r" e2 Z
4.6.2 Tool Geometry Measures to Increase the Allowable
3 B; }3 p; |1 E0 ~ Penetration Rate ....................................................................................224 ! M: k. }7 O9 ?
4.7 Common Design and Manufacturing Flaws..........................................259
8 S" S- C; |5 g, L, s 4.7.1 Web Eccentricity/ Lip Index Error.............................................260
8 S0 D2 U1 `. m, V+ t9 i3 L' ? 4.7.2 Poor Surface Finish and Improper Tool Material/Hardness.......261 3 Q( m9 @- s! N9 v
4.7.3 Coolant Hole Location and Size.................................................263 d% H6 j% X7 D" b4 t# W( F# w
4.8 Tool Geometry ......................................................................................267
9 e" h4 N. w5 R# ?; v% v 4.8.1 Straight-flute and Twist Drills Particularities............................269 + u, P' \% Z7 x- e+ c! ^
4.8.2 Geometry of the Typical Drill Point ..........................................270
7 j0 b; r1 c+ p8 `9 b+ x* T d5 y 4.8.3 Rake Angle.................................................................................272 1 ]8 i( m+ f2 @( s
4.8.4 Inclination Angle .........................................................................280
/ `2 h3 t) w. w7 X' W 4.8.5 Flank Angle................................................................................281 + O9 c7 M! r [& L( x
4.8.6 Geometry of a Cutting Edge Located at an Angle 6 [, N# T( u! J6 ?
to the y0-plane ............................................................................292 & i5 \1 s/ s Y" j
4.8.7 Chisel Edge ................................................................................295
% [1 i3 P- W6 w* a, o6 s7 B$ Z! F 4.8.8 Drill Flank is Formed by Two Planes: Generalization...............306
9 d- m2 \/ Q3 H8 H/ ]' n$ P 4.8.9 Drill Flank Angle Formed by Three Planes ...............................310
4 ~- N& S. p O/ ^$ m% B; B6 _ 4.8.10 Flank Formed by Quadratic Surfaces.........................................313 ) A; J# Z8 p& ]1 g" {
4.9 Load Over the Drill Cutting Edge .........................................................324 3 F, ~7 [% `: w7 w p; W; h2 D& J
4.9.1 Uncut Chip Thickness in Drilling ..............................................325
* n5 R2 L4 R/ v7 {: E: u$ Y ] o 4.9.2 Load Distribution Over the Cutting Edge ..................................327 7 S' K( {. n( L
4.10 Drills with Curved and Segmented Cutting Edges ................................328
' B5 O! S9 f2 ~; B! ^$ Q+ q 4.10.1 Load of the Cutting Part of a Drill with Curved Cutting Edges .329
$ b" K) t7 T$ H% h! [- L 4.10.2 Rake Angle.................................................................................332
' j/ Y4 }! W) K7 ^0 p8 ?* WReferences......................................................................................................337
% s T9 b* U% X: }' K, W5 Deep-hole Tools............................................................................................341 $ O& W, N- B" z6 c& L. Q) l
5.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................341
: E+ M# s0 A7 w3 l+ u5 ]% r/ s5.2 Generic Classification of Deep-hole Machining Operations.................343
, w. f4 |! P8 S0 |, r* P! c$ a5.3 What Does ‘Self-piloting Tool’ Mean? .................................................345
; Z- Z. T& X! ?& S/ P; h 5.3.1 Force Balance in Self-piloting Tools..........................................345
1 U5 `0 r, v+ f% n& S( h0 l5.4 Three Basic Kinematic Schemes of Drilling .........................................350
* G2 n7 [1 u% c7 ]* \- @4 a 5.4.1 Gundrill Rotates and the Workpiece is Stationary .....................351
2 E% w% s+ h- n+ k- B7 {+ J7 c9 t 5.4.2 Workpiece Rotates and the Gundrill is Stationary .....................352 ' r4 o2 u+ H6 ~7 U) L7 B9 M
5.4.3 Counterrotation ..........................................................................352 9 C4 C+ e, f! h; t
5.5 System Approach ..................................................................................353 4 y0 U3 _: L& Y' C
5.5.1 Handling Tool Failure ................................................................353
- |( Q. u. r: ?# _& W* y0 q$ j6 ?# i 5.5.2 System Considerations ...............................................................354
/ P$ G8 p; |; ?0 d0 o2 h+ ~; o5 `5.6 Gundrills................................................................................................362
# r/ u+ E. M: Z 5.6.1 Basic Geometry..........................................................................362
0 K# G- y8 K9 a' Q5 S# y 5.6.2 Rake Surface ..............................................................................365 3 z/ k9 e( ~( X# |: t
5.6.3 Geometry of Major Flanks .........................................................370
+ B( b5 B1 L: l8 i% \" ` 5.6.4 System Considerations in Gundrill Design ................................390
8 v, S- L: v% y! p& C( q. ]5.6.5 Examplification of Significance of the High MWF Pressure 3 P% \6 ~) q- @& o: {
in the Bottom Clearance Space ..................................................423
9 ^: O' c& J1 w: P- d q9 u 5.6.6 Example of Experimental Study ................................................425 ! O4 y8 l2 U, |
5.6.7 Optimization of Tool Geometry.................................................439 6 h3 Z: A. y9 T" B! F
References......................................................................................................440 ( G5 B- M+ d1 U( e$ C
Appendix A 5 k4 f- ~& B# a% y2 `; B
Basic Kinematics of Turning and Drilling.......................................................443 & a3 a8 P. N- M; s2 s
A.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................443 ( i2 W% J" N) ^& }% s
A.2 Turning and Boring ...............................................................................444
- [' x/ }$ p g r( P a9 E A.2.1 Basic Motions in Turning...........................................................444
3 [8 k) f0 Z- ]1 J A.2.2 Cutting Speed in Turning and Boring ........................................448 5 n z. v/ r7 g/ ~. R9 Q+ @! z. I# ~
A.2.3 Feed and Feed Rate ....................................................................448
E" ~& V) P0 b3 R4 ]7 S A.2.4 Depth of Cut...............................................................................449 % @8 i; q. g* [3 ]/ ]* ^7 y# i
A.2.5 Material Removal Rate ..............................................................449
+ m3 f# V+ X S' \9 K `/ } A.2.6 Resultant Motion........................................................................450
4 K/ ]9 q6 B1 a2 GA.3 Drilling and Reaming ............................................................................450 & S# {. I8 B( ]; Z$ a+ A$ y4 Z
A.3.1 Basic Motions in Drilling...........................................................450 * u0 O# C! ]* `+ o6 M) H
A.3.2 Machining Regime.....................................................................451 , z( r4 J9 ~" y' V- r- i4 m
A.4 Cutting Force and Power .......................................................................453
3 r9 C2 R \. k) k. y( h A.4.1 Force System in Metal Cutting...................................................453 + m8 k5 a* J" d
A.4.2 Cutting Power ............................................................................454
+ L& H/ d! d- R& H A.4.3 Practical Assessment of the Cutting Force.................................455
) a3 B6 S& o9 ^7 S IReferences......................................................................................................461
( S: ]/ M- }, L- d2 |$ mAppendix B % k7 J9 ]8 t' U' g6 ?6 v
ANSI and ISO Turning Indexable Inserts and Holders.................................463 : T/ S; P/ J! _. G
B.1 Indexable Inserts ...................................................................................463 6 w8 R p8 ?% N A* v
B.1.1 ANSI Code .................................................................................464 ( M: a0 _5 N7 w& \( U' y2 u8 K
B.1.2 ISO Code....................................................................................471
- }4 L J1 o7 n8 E7 c. w B.2 Tool Holders for Indexable Inserts (Single Point Tools) ......................491
' C+ z9 k5 v5 v8 s B.2.1 Symbol for the Method of Holding Horizontally Mounted . n3 i2 V) z5 s4 ~; Y6 Q
Insert – Reference Position (1) ..............................................................492
" L* ~/ ~/ n! y, P$ I B.2.2 Symbol for Insert Shape – Reference Position (2) .....................493
# {+ k' A* S# U B.2.3 Symbol for Tool Style – Reference Position (3) ........................493
( _& _' O& l3 z B.2.4 Letter Symbol Identifying Insert Normal Clearance – 3 f2 `8 o4 [3 ^" `* s; P
Reference Position (4)................................................................494
2 L4 F8 X2 T' r9 ?! }7 U+ \; K B.2.5 Symbol for Tool Hand – Reference position (5) ........................494 0 {; I2 m8 X0 b3 U
B.2.6 Symbol for Tool Height (Shank Height of Tool Holders D/ J7 D) B( q' T: V
and Height of Cutting Edge) - Reference Position (6) ...............494 3 G; S* ]. G- ]$ J, W% t
B.2.7 Number Symbol Identifying Tool Holder Shank Width –
- k& k \! q+ G5 e. e Reference Position (7)................................................................495 % p0 S2 I0 b' s& |& @
B.2.8 Number Symbol Identifying Tool Length –
/ j* l4 }, V4 \3 t Reference Position (8)................................................................495 ! P" M4 e% q0 V$ `1 D
B.2.9 Letter Symbol Identifying Indexable Insert Size –
$ n- {$ N) U4 m- f Reference Position (9)................................................................497 T& t2 X: h7 s; A1 a$ q7 c
Appendix C
! g$ e4 h& ~ n$ v6 a4 \ a: G. sBasics of Vector Analysis ..................................................................................499
: B" V5 d$ D q# [7 VC.1 Vectors and Scalars ...............................................................................499 / B ]4 h, o! f4 X' ?$ T
C.2 Definition and Representation...............................................................500
0 o6 t0 j, U1 @( c1 t6 W) \ C.2.1 Definitions..................................................................................500 - Q' E/ O' L, @/ E
C.2.2 Basic Vector Operations ............................................................503 1 ^$ A$ \2 P+ Q3 ], r# j9 S
C.3 Application Conveniences.....................................................................509 ! e0 ]0 Z. e5 x# D+ u$ ~
C.4 Rotation: Linear and Angular Velocities...............................................511 - d/ r z( T$ e2 m( ^; B
C.4.1 Planar Linear and Angular Velocities ........................................511
& ?$ |' |# i% {; @' { C.4.2 Rotation: The Angular Velocity Vector .....................................515
8 y* M8 i5 q4 x1 t; s, jReferences ...........................................................................................................518 ' W/ M: A) `7 c# Z3 J) b3 c
Appendix D
# o1 s4 [1 u% b3 ~5 [! oHydraulic Losses: Basics and Gundrill Specifics............................................519 1 \) P" B0 B# r
D.1 Hydraulic Pressure Losses – General ....................................................519
. z+ M8 M; Y, q# F' M! i# X D.1.1 Major Losses: Friction Factor ....................................................520
% |! \8 [3 M% F7 h5 }8 H S" |* @+ ^ D.1.2 Minor Losses (Losses Due to Form Resistance) ........................521 , b5 g$ ?/ r# L2 l$ g$ z8 \6 a1 W
D.2 Concept of the Critical MWF Velocity and Flow Rate .........................521
# h/ ]+ e6 O6 ~# _ D.2.1 MWF Flow Rate Needed for Reliable Chip Transportation.......522
1 W8 ]- Y% C1 C$ } D.2.3 Example D.1...............................................................................527 7 a- F9 R; `) a! R- f6 o
D.3 Inlet MWF pressure...............................................................................528 $ f+ O0 T z m( b! \
D.4 Analysis of Hydraulic Resistances ........................................................532
: N0 Y' e8 M6 s6 ?4 b& P. Q% t+ Y1 R4 } D.4.1 Analysis of Hydraulic Resistances Over Which the Designer # x1 v* |+ X" ^/ Y
Has No or Little Control ............................................................532
w2 `9 P' T9 `/ d+ I4 P* E9 X D.4.2 Variable Resistances Over Which the Designer Has Control ....535 , V# _; ^3 y) a; W, D
D.5 Practical Implementation in the Drill Design ........................................539
2 T: z& o1 ^5 jReferences ..........................................................................................................543
8 u8 O6 t3 S& B, w2 H& O9 cAppendix E
$ x& ^3 X( E! a0 URequirements and Examples of Cutting Tool Drawings................................545
& s7 ~# v/ Q; j" rE.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................545
. f* C, C" y- |; AE.2 Tool Drawings – the Existent Practice ..................................................546
9 D2 ~6 p# q& n7 C6 FE.3 Tool Drawing Requrements ..................................................................548 ! F* E1 y" C/ \( X
E.4 Examples of Tool Drawing ...................................................................553
; J3 e1 @6 Q3 x: XReferences ..........................................................................................................559 : v/ e$ l( L& F5 y g
Index…………………………………………………………………………….561 - c1 z! o; ?$ q3 h2 z
) B: y3 h0 v, O* q M+ i7 p9 Q
8 E2 A6 f/ ^" {1 w& P% O* n. H5 o l4 P |