1 What Does It Mean “Metal Cutting”? ...........................................................1 , U. K3 i" Q4 T2 U
1.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................1 " T( X8 B' v- h; B, a
1.2 Known Results and Comparison with Other Forming Processes ..............2
; V$ o5 i9 R( y/ }+ J7 k 1.2.1 Single-shear Plane Model of Metal Cutting ...................................2
/ D! {6 [* z7 _6 y 1.2.2 Metal Cutting vs. Other Closely Related Manufacturing
, z$ s% g; G8 n& J Operations .................................................................................................5
. f3 Q$ @3 N# ^' ]9 F* y1.3 What Went Wrong in the Representation of Metal Cutting?...................22 0 R& M/ c2 }% |. l6 ~4 W
1.3.1 Force Diagram..............................................................................23
+ C/ Y8 k% e) `* g. {6 x6 y" k z$ V 1.3.2 Resistance of the Work Material in Cutting.................................25 8 v5 u3 J, |& E! V+ t. @0 b) U) ~
1.3.3 Comparison of the Known Solutions for the Single-shear
P4 n$ P( O) E* J Plane Model with Experimental Results .................................................27
5 |* O2 E$ _" d" F: F" K. C, P: c1.4 What is Metal Cutting?............................................................................28
* _1 S3 p, c, k1 d/ z6 j, Y* n: I 1.4.1 Importance to Know the Right Answer........................................28
/ p" @9 d' c1 g 1.4.2 Definition .....................................................................................28 - ~$ E8 I4 w- I8 g- S6 B1 @
1.4.3 Relevance to the Cutting Tool Geometry.....................................29 , X; T) P3 f" R0 f# k! Z, @
1.5 Fundamental Laws of Metal Cutting.......................................................32 & _. V% b e& l! d+ @+ J5 l" x
1.5.1 Optimal Cutting Temperature – Makarow’s Law........................32 5 [/ I2 l% `% ^* H: G
1.5.2 Deformation Law.........................................................................35
7 V6 u6 n; q4 yReferences........................................................................................................50 2 L- M5 ?. _3 v' H% `6 ^
2 Basic Definitions and Cutting Tool Geometry,
7 ~2 l0 U7 u( h8 ~/ WSingle Point Cutting Tools ............................................................................55 / W- T7 ^" k1 T. T% s2 U( \5 i( G! x
2.1 Basic Terms and Definitions ...................................................................55
! K, x# @4 C+ s }5 } 2.1.1 Workpiece Surfaces.......................................................................57
* D# ?! q+ c; F1 M 2.1.2 Tool Surfaces and Elements ..........................................................57 : k& q8 d3 H( m& e/ C9 P" H
2.1.3 Tool and Workpiece Motions.......................................................57 & j( S3 r k" Q" {
2.1.4 Types of Cutting ............................................................................58
9 E* K. z! n$ B2.2 Cutting Tool Geometry Standards...........................................................60 6 T @. v5 p# x7 c4 u
2.3 Systems of Consideration of Tool Geometry ..........................................61
3 i! t+ d1 T4 i6 n$ P& x2.4. Tool-in-hand System (T-hand-S) .......................................................64
0 }4 k: |1 t+ v- f0 q+ I 2.4.1 Tool-in-hand Coordinate System.................................................64
! S/ W3 l5 @0 S. v$ I' h2 A 2.4.2 References Planes ........................................................................66
# M& _8 A0 r) t- ^4 l7 b 2.4.3 Tool Angles..................................................................................68
+ G* j" v0 c6 E; k% \$ B6 t 2.4.4 Geometry of Cutting Tools with Indexable Inserts ......................74
+ e9 d4 K: _. R6 _) C8 }2.5 Tool-in-machine System (T-mach-S)......................................................84
. M+ u7 h, c" c% Y) { 2.5.1 Angles ..........................................................................................84
# f8 \8 E* w0 V, j p5 | 2.5.2 Example 2.3 .................................................................................88 . |/ \! N/ Z4 N+ x+ u
2.6 Tool-in-use System (T-use-S) .................................................................90
8 X9 z/ _! ~* v; h4 J 2.6.1 Reference Planes ..........................................................................91
! s+ [8 \' y: J) e& \ m! B 2.6.2 The Concept .................................................................................92
, Z8 I" a2 l. q: v8 o 2.6.3 Modification of the T-hand-S Cool Geometry .............................92
) {. k4 \* z: V* p1 x 2.6.4 Kinematic Angles.........................................................................98 8 l" R: ~0 N$ s( u
2.6.5 Example 2.4 ...............................................................................100
) J t9 w0 a5 K3 \; `% l0 a& l2.7 Avalanched Representation of the Cutting Tool Geometry
0 x- y, w/ V7 X5 [+ A% k5 ?1 W2 V in T-hand-S............................................................................................102 " ^" k% Q7 d; k8 j
2.7.1 Basic Tool Geometry .................................................................102
, e% _! i/ \' w9 B) W2.7.2 Determination of Cutting Tool Angles Relation # p/ o* b$ m& g; H! D
for a Wiper Cutting Insert ..........................................................108 0 _- u5 S! r, n: O" j4 W
2.7.3 Determination of Cutting Tool Angles 2 t; I; T' N7 h& U" }$ [) Y
for a Single-point Tool ...............................................................110
( `3 E# V- n% t2 s 2.7.4 Flank Angles of a Dovetail Forming Tool .................................117 % d: x9 x: o% L: q! \4 J, \" {
2.7.5 Summation of Several Motions..................................................119 5 _* I5 |6 S3 U1 l, }- z" O
References......................................................................................................125 " \" C; g7 e6 T+ ~+ [( G. N/ ?
3 Fundamentals of the Selection of Cutting Tool Geometry Parameters...127
) L* W+ u S2 S% T+ B3.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................127
: J- b1 g3 u8 }4 U3 ^$ D3.2 General Considerations in the Selection of Parameters 7 w: H/ _' p( k' t- e& I- S
of Cutting Tool Geometry .....................................................................129 7 }& W9 }( R6 M/ [$ ]1 Q3 a
3.2.1 Known Results .............................................................................129
" u; Z) Q. Z* y0 {; [" ]2 h 3.2.2 Ideal Tool Geometry and Constrains............................................130
. k y5 v5 I, J$ ?! m; z 3.2.3 Practical Gage for Experimental Evaluation of Tool Geometry...132 2 l( c9 M: p# E% N
3.3 Tool Cutting Edge Angles .....................................................................132
( f% b* \- c) Q. x% J 3.3.1 General Consideration................................................................132
! D# a) X* D5 X7 m$ x 3.3.2 Uncut ChipT in Non-free Cutting ..............................................134
6 n6 I8 J5 t5 O& U$ C0 I 3.3.3 Influence on the Surface Finish..................................................142 & e( {9 J, a$ Z6 B# @- Q( H, A4 t E
3.3.4 Tools with κr > 90°.....................................................................144 - e: v" A+ D ]( F
3.3.5 Tool Minor Cutting Edge Angle ................................................147 & e' m; n4 }/ f, a( y" E8 }7 }/ B
3.4. Edge Preparation ...................................................................................161
: N6 S; H% s1 I1 \8 W+ r1 ]; S, Y 3.4.1 General .......................................................................................161 / d3 s6 ^- M( H M3 o
3.4.2 Shape and Extent........................................................................163 2 T- ~6 X- L9 f& [( G8 H) ?# X6 a' h
3.4.3 Limitations .................................................................................163 # T% x2 Q/ _# g4 }- r
3.4.4 What Edge Preparation Actually Does.......................................169 " n1 P, B+ j+ q* E7 W) I
3.5 Rake Angle............................................................................................171
& N. \$ q: e/ c 3.5.1 Introduction................................................................................171
' v. }/ C/ M4 \( j* Q0 W! c7 T* n 3.5.2 Influence on Plastic Deformation and Generazliations ..............175
7 Z* j3 B f1 |1 ~1 {- c* f 3.5.3 Effective Rake Angle .................................................................183 8 f. t& B, B- F8 A l* ~
3.5.4 Conditions for Using High Rake Angles....................................189
! }* I) x# H# q9 W: f3.6 Flank Angle ...........................................................................................191
9 _" O$ K7 t/ p# v7 w" K9 [1 Q$ `3.7 Inclination Angle...................................................................................193
$ R- u- S r+ d% C i3 r8 f* ~ 3.7.1 Turning with Rotary Tools.........................................................195 / Q1 J) m3 X$ c2 |; |1 y
3.7.2 Helical Treading Taps and Broaches..........................................197 6 }7 {9 G( K9 u/ a9 {& M
3.7.3 Milling Tools..............................................................................198
& s( U) {; h0 i- t$ R# w9 ~4 ^References......................................................................................................201
8 c5 z0 T9 a# ~- u6 c4 Straight Flute and Twist Drills ...................................................................205 9 x2 F3 l5 ]2 v: B4 \$ }1 w( T
4.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................205
?/ C5 `" x+ n8 W+ A8 Q4.2 Classification.........................................................................................206
, T9 v! D/ Q5 w+ c7 p4.3 Basic Terms...........................................................................................208
8 t, ^. w* l. g6 _( k# w& l( L4.4 System Approach ..................................................................................211
/ _# B: [. Q W4 k& t3 U- z 4.4.1 System Objective .......................................................................212
- m; G) B* U. h 4.4.2 Understanding the Drilling System............................................212
* c3 k# Y1 m% x8 Z# D% t& t 4.4.3. Understanding the Tool..............................................................212
) Y( `8 R' c/ W* N& E& m+ Y4.5. Force System Constrains on the Drill Penetration Rate ........................213 ' H, v. J5 [7 U4 ?
4.5.1 Force-balance Problem in Conventional Drills ..........................213 & g/ ]8 j$ q9 ]( L
4.5.2 Constrains on the Drill Penetration Rate....................................218 + a$ a- y1 N. ]- V1 `$ L7 U: b
4.5.3 Drilling Torque ..........................................................................219
% ?) k2 D4 d! C9 U 4.5.4 Axial Force.................................................................................220
5 X5 g: X( M2 m! E3 z2 [5 N. H 4.5.5 Axial Force (Thrust)-torque Coupling .......................................221 1 n6 n6 H, h& B0 L
4.6 Drill Point ..............................................................................................223
1 P' y X3 M% \6 ?( g! p 4.6.1 Basic Classifications ..................................................................223 # K2 @# l& g1 S; h0 T
4.6.2 Tool Geometry Measures to Increase the Allowable . B3 V5 N/ g# {2 N' |
Penetration Rate ....................................................................................224
7 f( n! G l0 H5 C4 j# Z/ m0 M4.7 Common Design and Manufacturing Flaws..........................................259 ! q1 }$ u" l$ w" h$ v
4.7.1 Web Eccentricity/ Lip Index Error.............................................260
3 k6 T# V6 a, \. D! ~- @ 4.7.2 Poor Surface Finish and Improper Tool Material/Hardness.......261
$ M( X. p$ b: }; L- n3 Z 4.7.3 Coolant Hole Location and Size.................................................263
3 ~% X: d4 i' `* H& P O4.8 Tool Geometry ......................................................................................267 ; w5 \, `- V* u' X
4.8.1 Straight-flute and Twist Drills Particularities............................269 . Z% y3 a3 L/ B1 \7 @- u. T
4.8.2 Geometry of the Typical Drill Point ..........................................270
2 x, i# ]! b# v8 x# j1 ` 4.8.3 Rake Angle.................................................................................272 ! V' q2 z% S( w9 m) K5 c2 U
4.8.4 Inclination Angle .........................................................................280
+ A/ e/ a. p! { 4.8.5 Flank Angle................................................................................281 9 M$ ~' c; X: t8 U
4.8.6 Geometry of a Cutting Edge Located at an Angle ' V0 q# b0 H( Z" R
to the y0-plane ............................................................................292
+ }% J+ w) K; a: e8 @# a 4.8.7 Chisel Edge ................................................................................295 ( x1 s* Q: @- \, l' h
4.8.8 Drill Flank is Formed by Two Planes: Generalization...............306
$ z3 E; q2 s+ ^7 {1 t' f# `- c% L 4.8.9 Drill Flank Angle Formed by Three Planes ...............................310
4 z$ L( T) P5 e5 o# Q0 G 4.8.10 Flank Formed by Quadratic Surfaces.........................................313
2 R6 ?! a: P9 R, Q1 {4.9 Load Over the Drill Cutting Edge .........................................................324
! T3 B- O5 X2 [/ ?0 S& t 4.9.1 Uncut Chip Thickness in Drilling ..............................................325 3 U2 q! `, A- N) K
4.9.2 Load Distribution Over the Cutting Edge ..................................327 1 C$ s4 T; D \0 K
4.10 Drills with Curved and Segmented Cutting Edges ................................328 T/ z( I7 \! Y6 ^3 J7 Y. Y) d
4.10.1 Load of the Cutting Part of a Drill with Curved Cutting Edges .329
0 T0 s4 o( H t3 t o0 v 4.10.2 Rake Angle.................................................................................332
0 m; F# x" k- c0 D% i) Y+ RReferences......................................................................................................337
6 k! _) I& ^ d4 G5 Deep-hole Tools............................................................................................341 ' ]& s& J: [$ X$ K
5.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................341 ! P8 Z" R- d- D+ O2 @ h
5.2 Generic Classification of Deep-hole Machining Operations.................343 6 m8 M$ x% Z7 b4 j2 f
5.3 What Does ‘Self-piloting Tool’ Mean? .................................................345 3 y" K) N" K7 X& R. o* m
5.3.1 Force Balance in Self-piloting Tools..........................................345 " I% i" Q* L6 {+ A
5.4 Three Basic Kinematic Schemes of Drilling .........................................350 - [- F$ a: c5 @2 V! _! O8 i
5.4.1 Gundrill Rotates and the Workpiece is Stationary .....................351 # C g9 ^# j/ E6 o" ]; L0 L% ]8 X- E$ t
5.4.2 Workpiece Rotates and the Gundrill is Stationary .....................352
4 k! q1 t" a) M: ~# H. C 5.4.3 Counterrotation ..........................................................................352 , Q# P$ n* H( d. u( a
5.5 System Approach ..................................................................................353
: ^/ L; T8 m/ b o' e- e3 e$ j 5.5.1 Handling Tool Failure ................................................................353
" l2 \+ F! C- A4 ] 5.5.2 System Considerations ...............................................................354
' R6 }0 Z) M8 L# k5.6 Gundrills................................................................................................362 / F8 @& |" Q, d3 F, F
5.6.1 Basic Geometry..........................................................................362
5 g$ ~$ @& h9 O4 B1 T 5.6.2 Rake Surface ..............................................................................365 ; p) G) J6 c* X; T
5.6.3 Geometry of Major Flanks .........................................................370 , J& J, ^8 q9 I2 Q
5.6.4 System Considerations in Gundrill Design ................................390 3 r5 x3 @8 I. p' a5 x! h
5.6.5 Examplification of Significance of the High MWF Pressure 9 H; Z6 l2 @1 w; U$ L3 @8 G- o6 F
in the Bottom Clearance Space ..................................................423 5 x( Q0 ]( h }. k( W, D
5.6.6 Example of Experimental Study ................................................425
2 M+ C+ Q# {- R, [" k$ u 5.6.7 Optimization of Tool Geometry.................................................439
3 D; s' d% c, A9 B. O$ PReferences......................................................................................................440
e8 u5 _- G: h% ?! a1 }Appendix A
5 P& H# G& T& n. X* s4 JBasic Kinematics of Turning and Drilling.......................................................443 % R$ Y/ B) a/ {
A.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................443 4 B3 U0 {! E3 i) {2 a( ~9 K
A.2 Turning and Boring ...............................................................................444 3 @" }- y' ?( d! E3 N
A.2.1 Basic Motions in Turning...........................................................444 0 R2 D8 G1 S2 G6 ]; R# p* g
A.2.2 Cutting Speed in Turning and Boring ........................................448 & B# W( x% n t
A.2.3 Feed and Feed Rate ....................................................................448 9 f; _$ n6 W/ _6 m% v
A.2.4 Depth of Cut...............................................................................449
/ i+ T9 E+ R7 }: X: [% h A.2.5 Material Removal Rate ..............................................................449 3 _; B7 Q4 d1 c
A.2.6 Resultant Motion........................................................................450 7 c o7 L* ^) L8 D
A.3 Drilling and Reaming ............................................................................450
" S: Y9 b# ?/ g A.3.1 Basic Motions in Drilling...........................................................450
" ?7 D8 O0 u( [/ ~" V& J" G A.3.2 Machining Regime.....................................................................451 & }- G; F% O3 M" k0 `
A.4 Cutting Force and Power .......................................................................453
$ O+ q1 z# l5 P6 ]' _) G9 } A.4.1 Force System in Metal Cutting...................................................453
g6 y/ S; o4 y: b+ K/ ?4 g A.4.2 Cutting Power ............................................................................454
: c' y8 A- y) l6 k6 s0 |, k A.4.3 Practical Assessment of the Cutting Force.................................455 8 {1 L9 l. C4 k- t, |4 R8 b. u
References......................................................................................................461
2 V% s0 n. R/ t* E) X. C* ZAppendix B + X9 @0 [$ ?9 d1 g: D6 x1 T- v2 y
ANSI and ISO Turning Indexable Inserts and Holders.................................463 7 `( C" g' H- H
B.1 Indexable Inserts ...................................................................................463
, J3 E3 j* }) {) ]# @; F9 O, i B.1.1 ANSI Code .................................................................................464
0 ~5 t: s8 V$ b* L( q1 B% s: p4 F B.1.2 ISO Code....................................................................................471
8 _ I% Y) D7 a* a$ m- c B.2 Tool Holders for Indexable Inserts (Single Point Tools) ......................491
) k; [3 z i8 ~ B.2.1 Symbol for the Method of Holding Horizontally Mounted
1 x1 d6 L1 b- h2 ~0 ? Insert – Reference Position (1) ..............................................................492 , h; S" R8 ?! S+ |7 f$ T
B.2.2 Symbol for Insert Shape – Reference Position (2) .....................493
/ o9 q4 ` M( V3 |, p1 ^9 n# ~ B.2.3 Symbol for Tool Style – Reference Position (3) ........................493 7 S- j! c0 V, w8 @3 r
B.2.4 Letter Symbol Identifying Insert Normal Clearance – - r* s6 Q0 h: w2 _
Reference Position (4)................................................................494 / {; B; M& \7 C# [
B.2.5 Symbol for Tool Hand – Reference position (5) ........................494
& `* i3 _3 h' a5 t: j( b& g) X B.2.6 Symbol for Tool Height (Shank Height of Tool Holders : Z5 h9 ~# e" n/ n& i
and Height of Cutting Edge) - Reference Position (6) ...............494
( O% A) t+ }8 `8 b; X* h B.2.7 Number Symbol Identifying Tool Holder Shank Width –
" P4 X/ ~2 S0 a C9 @7 B4 x Reference Position (7)................................................................495 4 e4 I% `( \& r- D
B.2.8 Number Symbol Identifying Tool Length –
0 C; @4 p- h2 O2 X2 ]9 R' X Reference Position (8)................................................................495
5 V7 k7 {$ ?- l& [' \- l B.2.9 Letter Symbol Identifying Indexable Insert Size –
3 S- Y* P1 D. p$ l9 m4 h. B, e Reference Position (9)................................................................497 4 C4 D) z2 w! X
Appendix C 9 j2 J. T0 ^, o w9 N9 q2 U$ l
Basics of Vector Analysis ..................................................................................499
6 b5 \: K( R, r1 D( ~C.1 Vectors and Scalars ...............................................................................499 / V, e! c% K& H$ g9 _" g9 y/ N2 B
C.2 Definition and Representation...............................................................500 / | ^7 i0 w) r
C.2.1 Definitions..................................................................................500 : \& e5 I: j/ p' {# ^4 b9 W- w" l+ X
C.2.2 Basic Vector Operations ............................................................503
4 s, T/ E9 o- n& O# ]: kC.3 Application Conveniences.....................................................................509
G. m& X" q* ZC.4 Rotation: Linear and Angular Velocities...............................................511 # f, Q H2 E4 b2 J2 D8 F" o
C.4.1 Planar Linear and Angular Velocities ........................................511 5 c Y9 C) Z' x1 _$ Z
C.4.2 Rotation: The Angular Velocity Vector .....................................515
- k7 W: j1 f& Z6 \" I8 cReferences ...........................................................................................................518
6 ^- p) s( t% Q/ ]Appendix D & J2 I- y7 J5 E$ H: U6 M9 L' P* v/ A
Hydraulic Losses: Basics and Gundrill Specifics............................................519
$ o T, m7 m2 a& @. {5 P' zD.1 Hydraulic Pressure Losses – General ....................................................519 5 I( _, B3 b+ ?- p
D.1.1 Major Losses: Friction Factor ....................................................520
2 @5 W# g# {: r D.1.2 Minor Losses (Losses Due to Form Resistance) ........................521
5 z# H9 ^" ?; p+ v, x4 l( ^ D.2 Concept of the Critical MWF Velocity and Flow Rate .........................521 ; a6 n; [' K$ T& u! ^! I! X g
D.2.1 MWF Flow Rate Needed for Reliable Chip Transportation.......522 ) }4 \6 b: [. [. V9 S
D.2.3 Example D.1...............................................................................527 ' [) K* i0 t# j! A
D.3 Inlet MWF pressure...............................................................................528
" z! r g& \' O$ M7 M' g4 N8 uD.4 Analysis of Hydraulic Resistances ........................................................532 7 q2 G- Z1 t, j
D.4.1 Analysis of Hydraulic Resistances Over Which the Designer
4 M# }! X5 l" U7 [% h y Has No or Little Control ............................................................532
' P+ `1 ?3 j6 }- D7 `: \% F D.4.2 Variable Resistances Over Which the Designer Has Control ....535
) A0 n6 [! ]) Y W: FD.5 Practical Implementation in the Drill Design ........................................539 % L8 I, D# P3 a4 w; T2 g4 x
References ..........................................................................................................543
9 i5 p' Q; G1 Z7 ?Appendix E : Q; X, ~ G; q+ u' B/ _9 G
Requirements and Examples of Cutting Tool Drawings................................545
/ d9 _- T- H" Y4 G4 b+ fE.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................545 - y4 O( ~! M0 S
E.2 Tool Drawings – the Existent Practice ..................................................546 ; G: R7 E) C2 N2 O1 D
E.3 Tool Drawing Requrements ..................................................................548
8 c. |: X+ @9 G) a% _9 {0 K0 d$ iE.4 Examples of Tool Drawing ...................................................................553
7 I& j j0 e/ I- |References ..........................................................................................................559
' }# a* p2 k, ]1 E+ r- |3 iIndex…………………………………………………………………………….561 9 z( `" A* R* @3 e8 W4 I6 o {
/ S) B# D/ @9 H1 |: Z' c 6 `/ T$ [2 F1 z; m+ h2 W
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